COP 30
A Decade of Climate Commitments: Tracking COP Venues & The Unfinished Agenda of Global Climate Justice
—By Advocate Amaresh Yadav, Supreme Court of India
Over the last decade, the Conferences of the Parties (COP) have travelled across continents—from Paris to Belém—promising climate ambition, equity, and urgent action. Yet, the world continues to witness rising emissions, shrinking climate finance, slow transitions, and widening inequalities between the Global North and South. As an environmental law practitioner in India, I view these ten COPs not just as diplomatic milestones but as critical moments reflecting the evolution of climate obligations, equity debates, and the struggle for environmental justice.
Below is a legal-policy perspective on the last ten COP venues, and what they collectively reveal about the future of global climate governance.
COP21 – Paris, France (2015): A Landmark, Yet a Limited Victory
Paris was revolutionary—states voluntarily committed to climate targets (NDCs) and agreed to limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C.
But the Paris Agreement lacked binding enforcement mechanisms. For environmental law scholars, the challenge remains: Can voluntary commitments counter a scientifically irreversible threat?
Paris set the framework. Implementation, however, has faltered.
COP22 – Marrakech, Morocco (2016): The Rulebook Began
Marrakech shifted focus from broad commitments to creating the “rulebook” for transparency, reporting, and accountability.
But geopolitics intervened—major emitters began soft-pedaling commitments.
For countries like India, COP22 highlighted the fragility of global climate leadership.
COP23 – Bonn, Germany (2017): The Vulnerability COP
Hosted by Fiji but held in Bonn, COP23 centred on climate vulnerability.
Small island nations demanded climate justice, adaptation funds, and protection against climate-induced displacement.
For legal perspectives, COP23 strengthened the argument that loss & damage is not aid—it is compensation rooted in historical responsibility.
COP24 – Katowice, Poland (2018): The Transparency COP
Katowice finalized large parts of the Paris Rulebook. Yet, tensions rose between coal-dependent economies and climate-vulnerable states.
It underlined the universal truth India has long advocated: Energy transition cannot be forced without financial and technological support.
COP25 – Madrid, Spain (2019): The COP of Disappointment
Originally scheduled in Chile, moved to Madrid due to internal unrest, COP25 failed to resolve key issues such as carbon markets (Article 6).
Scientific urgency met political inertia.
For legal experts, COP25 showed that global climate governance is often hostage to domestic priorities of the powerful.
COP26 – Glasgow, United Kingdom (2021): The ‘Phase Down’ Debate
Glasgow witnessed heated debate when India, supported by developing nations, pushed for “phase down” instead of “phase out” of coal.
This was a pivotal moment asserting the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR).
The final declaration was historic yet incomplete: fossil fuel language entered COP text for the first time, but the commitments still lacked enforceability.
COP27 – Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt (2022): The Breakthrough on Loss & Damage
COP27 achieved what vulnerable nations had demanded for decades—
a Loss & Damage Fund.
For the first time, the world acknowledged that developed countries must compensate for climate-induced destruction.
Yet questions remain: Who will pay? How much? By when?
Without operational clarity, the fund risks becoming symbolic.
COP28 – Dubai, UAE (2023): The Fossil Fuel Era Questioned
For the first time, a COP hosted by a petro-state pushed the global community to confront the central issue: the future of fossil fuels.
The UAE Consensus called for “transitioning away from fossil fuels”—a diplomatic phrase masking a deeper struggle between economic interests and planetary survival.
From a legal standpoint, COP28 exposed the limitations of consensus-based climate negotiations.
COP29 – Baku, Azerbaijan (2024): Finance Took Center Stage
Baku focused on climate finance—arguably the most contentious issue.
Developing countries emphasized that without adequate financing, the Paris goals remain theoretical.
India reiterated:
climate justice requires predictable, equitable, and grant-based finance—not loans, not conditions, not rhetoric.
COP30 – Belém, Brazil (2025): The Amazon’s Voice in Global Climate Law
Taking place in the Amazon basin, COP30 symbolizes the conflict between ecological protection and development pressures.
Brazil sought to position itself as a leader of rainforest conservation, while the world anticipated stronger commitments on deforestation.
Belém also amplified discussions around Indigenous rights, natural resource sovereignty, and environmental constitutionalism—areas where India’s own constitutional jurisprudence (Article 21, Article 48A, public trust doctrine) resonates strongly.
What This Decade Reveals: A Legal Analysis
From Paris to Belém, the decade of COPs exposes several fundamental truths:
1. Voluntary commitments cannot counter irreversible climate harm.
Climate law must evolve toward binding obligations, modeled on international human rights conventions.
2. Finance is the foundation—not the accessory—of climate action.
The Global South cannot transition without predictable financial flows.
3. Energy transition must be equitable.
It cannot be imposed; it must be supported through technology transfer and development rights.
4. Loss & Damage is a legal liability, not charity.
Historical emitters must acknowledge responsibility.
5. Climate justice must move from negotiation tables to enforceable legal mechanisms.
India’s Position: A Case for Environmental Justice
India stands at a unique intersection:
a developing country with rising energy needs, yet one of the world’s fastest-growing renewable energy markets.
Our Supreme Court has repeatedly interpreted Article 21 to include the right to a clean and healthy environment. The public trust doctrine, sustainable development, and precautionary principle form the backbone of our environmental jurisprudence.
Thus, India’s global stance is clear:
Climate action must be ambitious—but it must also be fair, equitable, and rooted in justice.
Conclusion: The Next Decade Must Be a Decade of Accountability
The last ten COP venues mark a decade of promises.
The next decade must be a decade of performance, enforcement, and transformation.
As an environmental law practitioner, I believe the world must now shift from diplomacy to legal obligation, from voluntary pledges to binding commitments, from good intentions to real climate justice.
Only then can global climate governance fulfill the promise it made in Paris—and the responsibility it owes to future generations.
Amaresh Yadav 🇮🇳
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Amaresh Yadav 
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